Artificial Intelligeny essays

Artificial Intelligeny essays Currently there is a lot of research going on in the field of Artificial Intelligence. The Artificial Intelligence research is not only to create robots, but to really understand what intelligence is, and at the same time understand the way our human brain thinks and works. Inevitably this research will lead to the creation of some very smart robots that will think and act much like humans do. When we say Artificial Intelligence we mean something that is able to make some sort of decisions provided some given data. And artificial intelligence does not necessarily have to be a robot or anything like it. A computer chess program is a perfectly legitimate example of Artificial Intelligence. Today most of the people not in the field of computers or electronics have a totally different idea of what Artificial Intelligence is. When people hear Artificial Intelligence they automatically think of robots such as the ones in movie the Terminator. People have this crazy idea of robots taking over the world which is not entirely true. If Artificial Intelligence really existed the way people think about Artificial Intelligence, then the world would be a totally different place. Assuming that there were intelligent robots or machines that were absolutely no different than humans, what would we do? Considering them as humans; giving them the same rights and privileges as we do to humans would be a hard thing to do. Discriminating and separating them from us would also be hard since they feel the same way, and love the same way. Again assuming that robots will love the same way humans do since theoretically speaking if carbon is capable of creating feelings so will silicon. First of all, why would humans discriminate against robots or Artificial Intelligence in general? There are several reasons why humans would. Robots will be immortal which would make their population grow faster, and over long periods of time they will be more r...

Capitalism and Industrial Revolution Essay

Capitalism and Industrial Revolution Essay Capitalism and Industrial Revolution Essay THE STRUCTURE AND CULTURE OF THE AMERICAN WORKPLACE SINCE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Sara Link Thomas Edison The structure and culture of the American workplace since Industrial revolution Introduction Before the industrial revolution, people were agricultural based in farms that were spread out in America. The mode of production was traditional and the output was dismal. Since the start of the Industrial revolution to date, the structural and cultural workplace in America has been impacted by may forces including rise of capitalism, use of technology, emergence of globalization and gender equality issues. Industrial revolution brought together people from different ways of life through the creation of machines, cities and factories. Time became of importance as work days were no longer determined by the sun. This was because the clock was used at the work place. Entertainment industry grew tremendously as people were seeking something to do when off clock. Congestion developed in the cities because there were no regulations and every family member had to work. Unlike in the agricultural age where families worked together, industrial revolution made it difficult for family members to work together. As a result, family life became very difficult. This paper discusses how the structure and culture of the workplace of American workplace have been affected by the forces of succeeding industrial revolution including capitalism, technology, globalization and issues of equality. Capitalism The term capitalism was coined in 19th Century when industrial revolution was at its peak and individual businessmen were come up with new enterprises and as they accumulated wealth. Capitalism is an economic system in which trade, business, means of production and distribution are controlled by the private owners or corporations, compared to the state-owned means of production. Capitalism has been in existence in the western world since the age of Mercantilism. Mercantilism was an economic system that was supposed to increase the country’s The structure and culture of the American workplace since Industrial revolution 3 wealth through imposing government regulations on commercial interests related to the country’s economy. It was believed that limiting the imports on tariffs and maximizing exports, the nation’s economy would be improved. Compared to the other economic systems, capitalism emphasizes on production at the expense of consumption to increase the productive capacity instead of investing it on economic enterprises that are unproductive for example, palaces and cathedral. It is recognized as the new emerging global economy. Capitalism is illustrated by the flow of goods, services, capital and labor through comparative advantage by use of new technologies that disrupt the traditional ways of conducting business. United States have built a niche for itself in the global economy using modern technology to create high quality goods and services that are value added as well as to have the most informa tion based economy. Remaining at the top is not easy and therefore industries in the United States have to adopt the principal of constant change through the process of â€Å"creative destruction.† This entails replacing ineffective products and the entire industry on a continuous basis. Today, capitalism exists in all countries of the world as a social system where production and distribution means are owned by a minority of people known as the capitalist class. Most people have to exchange their skills to work in return for a salary. This class of people is paid for producing of goods and services which are sold for profit. The capitalists make their livelihood from the profits the working class makes for them. Technology Technology is the study, development, modification, and usage of devices, machines, crafts, systems and techniques so as to find solutions to problems while improving a preexisting problem solution to achieve a

Communication In Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Communication In Economics - Essay Example It is a complete guidance in social, political, economical and other aspects for the Muslims. The Koran gives a clear direction in dealing with common issues from warfare, governance of states, marriages, doing business etc. Islam focuses on doing any act in accordance with equality and justice. The Islam has prohibited some of the issues, which are considered to be today's key of success. One such concept is the prohibition of Interest. But Islam gives the complete rational reasoning for it's the things, which are included and excluded by Islam. In today world, one of the main reasons for the businesses running successful in western world is because of mortgage and interest, however, Islam strictly rejects the concept of Interest in Islam. There are number of verses of Koran in which Interest has being strictly condemned. Interest in Arabic language is called 'Riba'. Interest is some amount of money received or has to pay for in order of lending and borrowing of assets. Islam has termed Riba as prohibited because a person is paying additional charges to which he not accounted to, and similarly earning extra money which he has earned without making an effort. Such type of earning is called earning easy money. For instance, a person has invests $100,000 as his savings in a bank at an annual interest rate of 5%. After one year, his savings will be $ 105,000. This additional $5000 amount is the easy earning that he has got, Islam calls these as Haram (prohibited) according to Islamic laws called Sharia'a. Islamic Banking: Now in Islamic states, in order to curb interest, many Islamic banks introduced Islamic finance, which does working according to Sharia'a. This type of banking started in 1970's. The Islamic banks works risk sharing system, in which the banks and the customers share profits under agreements. The people have the option of whether making an Islamic account or not. These banks have introduced La-Riba system (interest free) finance. When a person is making a saving account in a bank, he has two options. Either makes an account on zero interest or charge interest on it. In case of zero interest, he will receive the same amount that he deposited i.e. if he has invested $100000, he will receive $100000 on his withdrawal. Where as in the second case, where he can ask for the interest, he has two alternate. Either he can ask the bank to deducted Zakat (Islamic charity system) or can take additional interest amount with him, and donate into welfare or charity himself. In this way, he is not us ing additional money for his personal use. Similarly, there are banks that offer loan on zero interest i.e. if a person wants loan, he can pay it off without giving additional charges. For instance, if a person wants loan for construction of his house, he asks for a loan of $500000, then he only has to pay this amount in installments. However, it is suggested that it is better to invest your capital in project rather than banks. Because when you invest in a project, there you would be dealing with risks not with the Interest. New Products Offered by Islamic Finance: Since the arrival of these Islamic banks, there are some special Islamic products, which are being bought into the market. These products designed in accordance with Sharia'a laws. These products include Ijara, Murabahah, Musharakah, Mudarabah, sukuk etc. The basics of these products are discussed below Ijara is a type of Islamic leasing.

Teamwork Skills and Critical Appraisal of Presentation Essay

Teamwork Skills and Critical Appraisal of Presentation - Essay Example We were amazed at the idea of this educational charity project, which transformed a clay mine into a garden where students and non-students alike can learn more about the environment. The gardens for instance, consisted of various plants that are found in various parts of the world, and are usually grown in different climates, but could still survive under England’s climate conditions. At the same time, the people behind the project also made sure that the experience was enjoyable, by incorporating culture, music and theatre arts in their education programme. Indeed, the Eden project is in itself, an excellent mix of science, technology, the arts, culture, horticulture and architecture. We found it particularly inspiring how the project also aims to reach out to various members of society- such as prisoners from the prisons in the South Western part of the country, wherein these prisoners are taught skills such as planting fruits and vegetables, marketing, sales, distribution and even construction and maintenance, so they can continue to develop and improve their abilities, and create employment opportunities for themselves in the future. The following pages of this report shall discuss what my team did during the whole trip, and the skills that we found to be useful in accomplishing our tasks. The Belbin Teamwork Framework Belbin (1983) established his teamwork framework in 1981, and since then, his framework is one of the most popular when it comes to developing and assessing team development. When it comes to achieving optimum performance for any organisation, Belbin believes that one of the first things to consider would be the composition of the team itself. In other words, it is crucial to take into account the roles that different members of the team play, and how each member interacts with the other members of the team. In an organisation, or a team, Belbin believes that there should be individuals who take on one of nine roles, or at least some of his nine roles. These nine roles are: 1) the shaper, 2) the implementer, 3) the completer-finisher, 4) the coordinator, 5) the team worker, 6) the resource investigator, 7) the plant, 8) the monitor-evaluator and 9) the specialist. All these roles are also supported by corresponding individual characteristics. For instance, the ‘shaper’ is one who is focused on the task, is highly motivated and is determined to achieve goals. His role is ‘shaping’ the other members of the team to fulfil this purpose. The ‘coordinator,’ on the other hand, is more interactive with the other members of the team. He/she is the one most likely to trust that the other members of the team can and will carry out their respective tasks. For the most part, coordinators are optimists, who are tolerant of the mistakes of others. At the same time, he/she may also be strict with rules. The ‘resource investigator’ is the one who is constantly on the lookout fo r information and thus may never be able to be found in one place. He/she may have the characteristics of a negotiator, and he/she is the one who actively takes on the task of exploring opportunities and meeting new people. The resource investigator is also likely to be the curious one of the team- always asking questions from others and adopting and modifying other ideas picked up from other individuals. The ‘implementer’ on the other hand, is characterised as a practical individual, who trusts easily and is respectful of traditions. They are more realistic and may also be conservative. They may not take too well to changes within the organisation. The ‘

Individual Reports on Group Presentations Essay

Individual Reports on Group Presentations - Essay Example Apart from this they presented us with the pros and cons of genetic programming. Discussion of the Topic The idea of code evolving the way human genes evolve is really very fascinating and novel but the progress made so far and the results shown by genetic programming are very narrow and limiting (William B. Langdon, 2002).the group showcased SIRI as a masterpiece of genetic programming but I consider it to be a simple algorithm which cannot be compared to evolve like the human genes. Genetic programming as of now can be considered to be only a slight variation on solution searching algorithm (Larson, 2009).The focus of Genetic programming in SIRI or even in robotics has been to converge to a solution. The application of genetic programming only to converge to a solution as quickly as possible is not the way human genes function. So either the name genetic programming needs to be changed or tweaked to make drastic progress in the field. The progress till now has been a failure. (Nave t, 2006)The group has mentioned in one of the cons of genetic programming that it uses a lot of computer power. This according to me is no more a disadvantage. The recent progress in computing means that we have more computer cycles than we have use for. So genetic programming is no more unviable due to the computing power it uses. However it will surely become unviable if it does not produces better results. The future research in robotics called as evolutionary robotics may be the way forward to further develop genetic programming. This is something that the group failed to look into in their presentation. Genetic programming where programs generate future programs is the bedrock of artificial intelligence. In order to make robots which can follow our orders or even phones which are really smart, genetic programming needs to evolve a lot. It can make human work easier and help us to reach new levels in industrialisation and development. However genetic programming also threatens t o make a lot of human resource obsolete and redundant. If programmes can regenerate, there will be little use of software engineers and programmers. However it is still a long way to go before all that happens. In its present form genetic programming have been a failure and not the promising revolution which the group wants us to believe it is. Marking and Justification Marks: Content Topic Marks Justification Research 15/20 The topic was well researched and presented in a way that a novice can understand. Relevance 7/10 Stuck to the brief but the only drawback was to discuss the failure of genetic programming till now. Topicality 6/10 Robotics and GP not linked Conclusions 8/20 No justification for conclusions given by the group. Marks: Presentation Topic Marks Justification Clarity 8/10 Speakers were loud and easily audible. Structure 5/10 When the speaker changed, there was a break in the flow of thoughts which indicated lack of practice. Materials 9/10 The slides and visual aids were of extremely good quality. Bonus Marks 2/10 Good appearance. Group H Description of the Topic The group focuses on cyber terrorism. The group started by defining cyber terrorism. Although there is no one fixed definition of cyber terrorism, the group chose to give two definitions which are given by United States armed forces and the Collins dictionary. They also tried to provide their own

Teaching English As A Foreign Language

Teaching English As A Foreign Language The aim of this study is to assess the performance of the teachers of English for the first year of the secondary schools in Missalata in: the new textbook. It also investigates other factors that influence teachers presentation, such as: the time allocated to the teaching of English and the lack of important materials such as tape recorders, dictionaries and other teaching aids. The main tool through which the researcher collected data is checklists adopted from a well known figure in teaching English as a foreign language named Jack Richards. The study consists of five chapters. Chapter one looks at defining some of the concepts involved in the TEFL teaching process as well as emphasizing the role of the teacher. Chapter two examines the background to TEFL teaching in Libya. It also includes a literature review. Chapter three outlines the background to the study and introduces the learning environment of it. It also discusses the methodology of the study and looks at the applied checklist as well as the parameters used as part of the research. Chapter four analyses the collected data. The last chapter comprises the conclusion and recommendations which are thought to be helpful to improve the English language teaching in Libyan schools. Chapter one 1.1- Introduction Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) is a complicated process because it comprises a number of elements where the absence or the weakness of any one would affect the whole process. Al-Akhdar (2001: 1) says in this context The success of a course of English as a FL depends on several factors He discusses the issue of methodology in detail as one of the factors influencing the successful outcomes of the teaching operation. Another factor is to be discussed here: it is the teacher. This study examines the important role of the teacher in relation to the methodology employed. The reasons behind the important role played by the teacher in the teaching process is illustrated by the following points: 1. The teacher can compensate for any shortage of material or poor material, either by using other sources, or by tailoring the material to suit his particular class. 2. The teacher can balance the variations of the students levels. It is natural for the teacher to notice this heterogeneity in any class. It is the teacher who knows how to deal with such a situation. 3. He is also the one who deals with oversize classes (i.e. classes with more than 16 students) when it is quite difficult to carry out certain tasks and activities. Harmer (2002: 128) maintains that: In big classes, it is difficult for the teacher to make contact with the students at the back and it is difficult for the students to ask for and receive individual attention. He goes on to give reasons for the difficulty in teaching big classes by saying: big classes mean that it is not easy to have students walking around and changing pairs etc. Most importantly, big classes can be quite intimidating for inexperienced teachers. Ur (1997: 303) also lists some problems in teaching large classes such as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Discipline à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Correcting written assignments. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Effective learning for all. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Materials. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Individual awareness. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Participation. 4. It is the teachers responsibility as well to overcome the problem of the shortage of classroom timetabling. Some syllabus timing is longer than that allocated by the Education Authority. All of the above points encompass the teachers responsibilities and distinguish him as a crucial factor in the educational process. Dubin and Olshtain (1986:31) however, put it well when they said: The teacher population is the most significant factor determining success of a new thinking and what it involves in practical terms are crucial. Alien and Valette (1977: 3) also stress the important role of the teacher. They say that: The teacher is the key figure in the language course. It is the teacher who sets the tone for the learning activities. They add that: The teacher plays a prime role in effecting student progress or lack thereof. The teachers role, therefore, in creating a successful learning environment for EFL secondary school students studying in Libya is of paramount importance to the successful completion of their course. This dissertation examines the teachers role and undertakes an analysis of the complications involved and the possible solutions to these difficulties. This analysis takes the form of an evaluation of teachers lessons at secondary schools in Missalata, Libya. 1.2-Elements Involved in English Language Teaching: Before this analysis is undertaken, however, the process behind EFL teaching in general needs to be examined in some detail. This will place the teachers role in context and illustrate the overall complexity inherent In the EFL process This process according to Al-Mutawa and Kailani (1998: 6) consists of central determinants which include the pupil, the EFL teacher, the method of teaching, the teaching materials and the classroom environment. These EFL learning and teaching elements are briefly discussed from a Libyan perspective in the following section: 1. 2.1-The Pupil: There are two types of English language learners in the Libyan environment; a full time student in an academic institution (school, college or university) and those who are enrolled on private courses which are run by private language centres. The objective behind learning English at these types of language centres is either to fulfil the need of the learner himself or that of his employer for work requirements, or to develop further the learners capability in a specific field such as, English for medicine, English for engineering, etc. The difference between the two can be summarised as follows: A. The syllabus for the learner at the academic institutions is a standard one which is taught all over the country, while the syllabus for the private institutions varies from one organisation to another. B. The learners age at the academic institutions are fairly similar Whereas it can vary at the private centres. C. Private language centres care a lot about the number of learners in one class, but public classes are always oversized which in turn can affect their learning process. 1.2.2- The EFL Teacher: Each job has its own specification or what is called a job description. Accordingly it is necessary, when recruiting a teacher to fill a position in any school to match him against the requirements for the job. But what are the criteria that we can apply in this process? It is quite difficult to base the answer on a checklist of a number of criteria such as a university degree. However, Richards (2001: 209-210) points out that two main factors should be considered carefully in employing EFL teachers: 1.2.2.1- The Teachers Knowledge. In this respect he outlines the following: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ practical knowledge: the teachers repertoire of classroom techniques and strategies à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ content of language knowledge: the teachers understanding of the subject of TESOL, e.g., pedagogical grammar, pronunciation, teaching theories, second language acquisition, as well as the specialized discourse and terminology of language teaching contextual knowledge: familiarity with the school or institutional context, school norms, and knowledge of the learners, including cultural and other relevant information à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ pedagogical knowledge: ability to restructure content knowledge for leaching purposes, and to plan, adapt and improvise à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ personal knowledge: the teachers personal beliefs and principles and his or her individual approach to teaching à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ reflective knowledge: the teachers capacity to reflect on and assess his or her own practice. 1.2.2.2- Teaching Skills: Teaching skills refer to knowledge or the ability to perform certain skills. A similar taxonomy is provided by McDonough and Shaw ( 1993: 297) who lists the following: Knowledge of the language system Good pronunciation Experience of living in an English-speaking country Qualifications (perhaps further training taken, or in-service development) Classroom performance Evidence of being a good colleague Length of time as a teacher Ability to write teaching materials Careful planning of lesson Same LI as students, or a sound knowledge of it Experience of a variety of teaching situations Personal qualities (outgoing, interested in learners and so on) Publications Knowledge of learning theories Wide vocabulary Ability to manage a team of teachers. In addition to the above points education authorities at all levels (planners, inspectors and headmasters) are asked to follow up and assist English language teachers in order to improve further their ability and make cope with any development that might arise. Richards (2001: 218). Lists a number of conditions to achieve and maintain good teaching standards: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Monitoring: in this respect he states that to upgrade the level of teaching, monitoring can play a major role through: group meetings, written reports, classroom visits, and student evaluations. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Observation: This can also play a part in upgrading teaching and he proposed different ways to implement this task. He suggests: self-observation, peer observation or supervisor observation. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Identification and Resolution of Problems: problems that may face the teacher should be identified well in advance and should be tackled immediately in order to be avoided in future. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Shared Planning: This task can be done through the collective work among teachers on planning a course of study. EFL teachers in Libyan secondary schools are prepared to teach a certain syllabus not teaching English. Moreover, they are not taught how to teach the new textbooks. 1.2.3-The Method of Teaching: Before discussing the different methods it is worth distinguishing between the two terms method and approach. Richards et. Al. (1985: 228) give very simple definition. They say method is: (in language teaching) a way of teaching a language which is based on systematic principles and procedures, i.e., which is an application of views on how a language is best taught and learned. They go on to say that these views include: a. The nature of language b. The nature of language learning c. goals and objectives in teaching d. the of syllabus to use e. the role of teachers f. the techniques and procedures to use As with regard to the definition of approach, Al-Mutawa and Kailani (1988: 12) say in this respect: The term approach refers to principles or assumptions underlying the process of language teaching and learning. They give the following clear example to illustrate their definition: one of the assumptions underlying descriptive linguistics is that language is a set of habits, i.e. habit formation which is acquired by the process of stimulus, response and reinforcement. Below is a discussion of the major teaching methods. 1.2.3.1- Grammar Translation Method: The history of Grammar Translation method dates back to the decades of teaching Latin in the nineteenth century. The objective behind The application of this method includes as Rivers says ( 1983: 29) an understanding of the grammar of the language and training the student to write the new language accurately by regular practice in translating from the native language. It aims at providing the student with a wide literary vocabulary It aims training the student to extract the meaning from texts in the new language by into the native language. Students are taught, according to this method, deductively by having sufficient explanations of the rules as well as long lists of vocabulary and asked to memorise them by heart in order to translate texts. The teachers role however, is exemplified in the use of the learners first language to explain the rules and the vocabulary of the targeted text and then assists the learner to translate it. (Baker and Westrup: 2000). Less emphases is made on accurate pronunciation thus listening and speaking are ignored in this method. The Grammar Translation method is known to be very useful as Baker and Westrup( 2000: 4)) point out: in teaching academic work and for passing written exams . 1.2.3.2- The Direct Method: The Direct Method was brought to existence by the end of the nineteenth centaury in rejection for the ignorance made by the Grammar Translation method to listening and speaking skills. Voices started to be heard at that time for reform and that is why the direct method was known as the Reform method. The method is also known as the Natural or the Psychological Method for the fact that it makes an analogy between the child who learns his mother tongue and the way the learner learns L2. In contrary to the Grammar Translation Method, the Direct Method stresses the need to use the target language right from the regaining and to avoid the use of the mother tongue. In this respect Rivers (1983: 32) says: This renewed emphasis on the target language as the medium of instruction in the classroom meant that correct pronunciation became an important consideration. The classroom teaching concentrates on practising the target language through the use of listening and speaking while reading and writing are considered less important. Students are encouraged to memorise phrases and dialogues. Baker and Westrup( 2000: 4) list the following limitation in learning L2 through the use of the Direct Method: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Students may not always understand what they are repeating; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Students cannot make their own responses in new and different situations; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Teachers may not be confident enough to use English throughout the lesson; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are not so useful for advanced learners. 1.2.3.3- The Audio-lingual Method: One of the main reasons for the emergence of The Audio-lingual Method came as a result of the need of the American forces to use and understand the language of the invaded countries in the 40s and 50s. Kara (1992: 82) says in respect of the application of the Audio-lingual the Following: then being used by the American Army to train their men to understand a native speaker and speak a Language with a near-native accent. She goes on to describe the mechanical application of the method by saying: Classes were small and staffed by linguistic by linguistic experts who taught using graded materials based on structural analysis and demanded long hours of drill and active practice with native speakers as models for imitation. This method has based its grounds on the Behaviourist Psychology where the following assumptions are embedded: a) Language learning is primarily mechanical habit formation. b) Language is a form of verbal behaviour. c) Priority goes for mastering spoken first in order for the other skills to be effectively gained. d) Analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis, therefore pattern practice in context precedes the presentation of rules. e) Teaching language involves teaching the cultural norms of native speakers of the target language. The major criticism addressed to the Audio-lingual method is represented in Rivers (1981: 47) words as follows: If Audio-lingual training is given in a mechanical way, students may progess like well trained parrots-able to repeat whole perfectly when given a certain stimulus, but uncertain ,;t meaning of what they are saying and unable to use ::^.zed materials in contexts other than those in which they earned them. Student must be trained from the first lesson to apply what they have memorized or practiced in drills in communication situations contrived within classroom group. 1.2.3.4-The Communicative Approach: The Communicative approach first emerged in the UK in the mid to .ate 1970s. It was brought up as a result of the dissatisfaction with the structural and behaviourist methods of language teaching. This is the methodology which is currently widely used in text books not only in the West but even in our schools and training centres in Libya. Besides the preparatory and secondary schools text books, most of the oil sector and banks training centres are applying this approach in their teaching of English. The focus, in this approach, is on using language for communication while accuracy is seen as secondary. The function of language, or the way it is used, is considered more important than the form. As with regard to classroom teaching, the communicative approach gives a large proportion of class time to student-centred activities. Students are given the chance to use the language in realistic situations where they must use the language for real communication. The use of authentic materials and realia is encouraged wherever possible. The role of the teacher however, is seen as a group manager and activity leader or facilitator. In this case, he is advised to allow considerable time for the learners to work at their pace and ensures that the learners should proceed from guided to freer practice of language items. The teacher has also to encourage group and pair work. 1.2.3.5- The Eclectic Approach: Some teachers however, prefer to adopt an eclectic approach. The teacher in this case adopts some of the above mentioned methods during one single lesson. The teacher in this situation carries out a certain task in the class using grammar translation methodology and the other task performed through the audio-lingual method. In this regard Al-Mutawa and Kailani (1988: 27) say: Teachers often incorporate features of different approaches in their particular methodology. Most of the English language teachers nowadays think that teaching grammar is the objective of teaching the language. Functions and notions for them are considered as secondary targets or they are used mainly to illustrate or highlight grammar rules. 1.2.4- The Teaching Materials: Teaching materials include; textbooks, workbooks, newspapers and magazines, posters, blackboards, whiteboards, language laboratories, overhead projectors, tape recorders, videos and realia (such as real fruits, Vegetable, Kitchen objects) etc . Teachers can always try to create in the use of these materials. Some schools may lack some of above if not most. The teachers, therefore, can manage this shortage of materials. They can for example use his personal items from home or bf can seek the help of his students. 1.2.5- The Classroom Environment: Most of the classrooms in Libya are built compatible with educational specifications. That is all of the classrooms are large enough to accommodate (between 25 to 30) students in each class. They have enough windows to provide light and fresh air. The physical building itself is not enough, however. There are of course, other things complementing the physical structure such as ventilation, particularly in winter when these classes need to be warm enough, and electricity supply that is just as important. Students and teachers desks as well should be convenient. All of these compose an environment that might help create an appropriate educational atmosphere. Further to the above discussion, it is necessary for purposes of clarification to discuss other terminology that can appear confusing. Terms such as curriculum, syllabus, methodology and teaching materials are interrelated and are sometimes mistaken for one another. Since this study uses these terms very frequently, it becomes essential to define what each one of them means. 1.2.6.Curriculum: Nunan(1988:6) defines curriculum as follows: curriculum is a very general concept, which involves consideration of the whole complex of philosophical, social and administrative factors, which contribute to the planning of an educational programme. On the same line, Lim (cited in Richards 2001: 41) also includes the following parameters as part of the curriculum process: needs analysis, goal setting, syllabus design, material design, language programme design, teacher preparation, implementation of programmes in schools, monitoring, feedback and evaluation. Curriculum can be divided into three different groups: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Planned Curriculum à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Implemented Curriculum à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Realized Curriculum Nunan (2000) describes these stages as follows: I like to draw a distinction between the planned curriculum, the implemented curriculum, and the realized curriculum. The planned curriculum includes everything that is done prior to the delivery of instruction. The implemented curriculum refers to what happens in the moment-by-moment realities of the classroom. The realized curriculum refers to the skills and knowledge that learners actually acquire as a result of instruction. This study will be mainly dealing with the implemented curriculum. Chapter Two Literature Review 2.1.- Secondary School Syllabus (Past and Present): 2.1.1- Introduction. The teaching of English as a foreign Language has attracted great interest in Libya since the mid 40s. Imssalem( 2001: 8) said in this context: Since the start of British administration in 1943, English was introduced into the school system and has become the first foreign language. English is also currently a core subject from the first year of preparatory school to the university stage. It is also a core subject in all university colleges. The preparatory and secondary school English textbooks in Libya, however, have seen remarkable developments. These developments fall into two main stages: 2.1.2-Secondary School Syllabus Before 1996. Libya was one of the Italian colonies and it was very much affected by the Italian imperialistic policy, particularly in the field of education. In this regard, Mahaishi (1999: 9) maintained that: education was affected by the policies made by the colonisers, where they had abolished the schooling system created by the Ottoman rule during the last years of their empire. Consequently the colonisers imposed an Italian curriculum from the early education stages in order to Italianise the life of the Libyan Arab citizen through imposing the Italian language. This stage lasted nearly half a century. Afterwards, and by the start of the British administration in Libya in 1943, English language started to take its place in the Libyan school curriculum in a different way to that employed by the Italian invaders. Whereas the Italian curriculum aimed at Italianising the Libyan education system, English language during the British administration was introduced as a school subject. Other subjects such Maths, Chemistry etc, were introduced in Arabic. Moreover, education in Libya, generally, was very limited for many reasons, for example, poverty and the fact that the country was the scene of ferocious imperialistic wars between foreign forces, to the extent that John Wright (1972: 206 ) in his book The History of Libya put the rate of illiteracy at 90%. until 1964 the English Language syllabus was exemplified in English textbooks imported from Egypt. Imssalem (2001: 8) says that: The curriculum for English language teaching in Egypt was introduced into Libya by British-trained Egyptian teachers. In the late 60s, M. Gusbi in collaboration with R John produced a new syllabus, which lasted around three decades as reliable, local Material used in Libyan secondary schools. Mr. Gusbis material (Further English for Libya, Revised edition 1974) was based on the audio-lingual method, which was characterised by concentration on structure and form rather than on meaning as an objective of teaching. This approach has relied on introducing a topic, familiar to the learners culture, followed by some drills and exercises. The lessons were gradually graded in linguistic complexity, aimed at consolidating the rules in order to develop the learners linguistic competence. For instance, if you look at the exercises used in Lesson One (Gusbi and John, Seventh Impression, 1983: 4-5) only section C is different with the introduction of some comprehension questions. One finds them concentrating on grammar, for example, Section D (Make sentences from this table), Section E (Put these sentences into negative etc. With regard to the skills, the focus was only on listening and speaking in the first stages. Reading and writing, however, were postponed to the advanced stages until the first two skills were mastered. This method implies a teacher centred approach, where he/she finds himself/herself taking the big share of talking and directing as well as correcting any type of error that might arise to ensure the development of the learners accuracy. The case of the Libyan English textbook, (Further English for Libya) which was built on structural bases, was almost the same as that in some other Arab countries. Kharma and Hajjaj, (1986 : 60) describe the syllabus in the Arab Gulf States before the mid 70s by saying: With the introduction of the structural approach the syllabus continued to be thought of as materials content in terms of lexical and grammatical items, and particularly sentence patterns. At that time the Communicative approach was introduced into the curriculum in Europe and the USA. 2.1.3-Secondary School Syllabus After 1996: In order to discuss the secondary school syllabus in Libya after 1996 this section highlights the development of the communicative approach since the Libyan secondary school textbooks are now based on a communicative approach of teaching. The communicative approach came into existence by the end of 1960s and early 70s as a result of the dissatisfaction with the then current approaches and methods, such as the Grammar-Translation method, Direct method, Audio lingual method etc, that concentrated on language structure instead of the real use of the language itself as means of communication. Richards (1995: 66) in this context quoted Littlewood when he describes the communicative language teaching by saying: One of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language. This approach has incorporated the teaching of the four language skills besides grammar and vocabulary which according acknowledges the interdependence of language and communication. Thus it supersedes the previous methods in unifying these two concepts i.e. language and communication. This shift however, from merely teaching language structurally to teaching it communicatively met with different views, some in favour and others against. In China for instance, Xiao Qing Liao (10/10/2001) says: In spite of the resistance [to the introduction of the communicative approach in China], there were still many teachers in favor of CLT. Although communicative language teaching was introduced to the Libyan secondary school textbooks in 1997, which is considered relatively late, it can be said that these textbooks are improved for the following reasons: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They can be described as comprehensive multi-strand textbooks i.e. they introduce in each unit of the books; vocabulary, grammar and the four language skills listening, speaking, reading and writing. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The textbooks content of vocabulary, grammar and the four language skills serve the theme of each unit in a communicative way. The authors (Tankard and Tankard 2001:1) give an example of this point in their introduction to the First year Secondary School Textbook by saying: Unit 5 has the theme Countries and Regions. In this unit the vocabulary relates directly to the theme: the students learn new words and expressions to describe geographical regions. The grammar point covered is comparative adjectives, and the communicative functions are comparing people and things and talking about countries and regions. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The variation in the topics included in the course book supports the learners command of the language and can help him to use English in real life situations. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Contrary to the previous textbook (Further English for Libya by Gusbi and John 1970 Longman publications), which dominated the process of teaching English as a foreign language in Libyan schools for nearly three decades, the new textbook can also be considered as a dynamic one and not static. For instance, in terms of student participation, most of the tasks were set in order for the students to interact among themselves, to play certain roles or to solve a problem, whereas the old textbook concentrates mainly on grammar issues where there is no chance for group work. The possibility of performing the exercises in the old text book can only be done between the teacher and a student or one student and another. Accordingly, the chance for involving the whole class group work or pair work is not available. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The other advantage of the new textbook is represented in the use of Visual aids. The pictures are very helpful and very motivating for the learner to learn, to understand the task and accordingly participate actively in the class. For instance, in Unit Two (p. 6,7and 8) the topic is about Towns and cities in which the authors introduced the city of Bath in England as an example. At first they present an introduction about the city on page 7, supported by a map of the city using colours (red, blue and green) to show the most famous places like the museum, Post office, car park and recreational park. The objective behind the passage, in page 7, is to provide the learner with necessary vocabulary. In page 8, the picture is used for further drills of the vocabulary in listening and speaking e.g. giving and following directions. These drills are of course, supported by drawings. Besides dealing with vocabulary, listening speaking and reading, it also deals with grammar in clusively (using WH questions and demonstrative pronoun there). Pictures in the old syllabus, however, were very limited and did not serve the theme or any learning activity. In spite of this improvement of the new English Language textbook in Libya, it did not take into account the other elements of the learning and teaching process i.e. the pupil, the EFL teacher, the method of teaching applied in the Libyan schools, teaching material, and the classroom environment. So the questions that should have been posed by the authors of English for Libya (Alan and Fiona Tankard) and the Libyan educational authorities before writing the textbook could have been: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Is the teach

Essay --

Through the various events in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain presents the life of a young, adventurous character named Huck. This interesting character embarks on the Mississippi River through the novel along with a runaway slave named Jim. The Mississippi River serves as symbols of protection, retreat from society, and Huck's true morality. In The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain contrasts life on water to life on land through Huckleberry's experiences. Mark Twain uses the Mississippi River as a symbol showing protection from danger. Several instances in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn include this contrast of the carefree and safe river and the dangerous and mischevious land. Huck and Jim encounter two con men, the King and the Duke, on land. The King and Duke put on a dramatic show for the town making them believe that they are the Wilks' brothers and are from England. Huck only knows the truth behind con men's tricks, and thus another troublesome event on land emerges. The Mississippi River actually protects him from all danger throughout the novel....

“Amotivational Syndrome”

Jesse Love â€Å"Amotivational Syndrome† and Marijuana use: An Ongoing Debate November 30, 2008 The positive or negative effects of marijuana usage are a common point of discussion among psychologists. One of the more common debates surrounds â€Å"Amotivational Syndrome† (i. e. the purported lack of motivation that results from marijuana use). The existence or non-existence of this â€Å"syndrome† has been discussed for over a century among both users and non-users alike (Duncan, 1987, p. 114).The two articles chosen for this essay attempt to determine whether amotivational syndrome is a by-product of marijuana use by applying two separate methods of analysis. By analyzing these articles it will be clear that there is no conclusive evidence that suggests a direct correlation between amotivational syndrome and marijuana use. In 1987, David F. Duncan sought to critique previous studies of marijuana use that claimed amotivational syndrome was a prevalent phenomenon among acute marijuana users.He aimed to challenge previous studies that assumed, in their conclusions, that users of marijuana possessed characteristics of â€Å"introversion, passivity, and lack of achievement-orientation† (Duncan, 1987, p. 114). In his introduction, Duncan introduced cross-cultural examples where marijuana use is actually used as a stimulant; for instance in Jamaica, where he compares marijuana use to North American coffee consumption (Duncan, 1987, p. 115). Duncan concludes that only by conducting a comparative study, i. . by taking a sample of subjects who are both users and non-users, could real evidence for â€Å"marijuana-related antimotivational syndrome† be determined (Duncan, 1987, p. 115). Duncan pointed to the flaws a study conducted by Halikas et al. In 1982. Halikas wanted to determine the â€Å"lifetime prevalence† of amotivational syndrome in lifetime users of marijuana. To do so, he posed a single question meant to encompass th e criterion of amotivational syndrome.The question encompassed elements such as: â€Å"Have you ever had a period when you weren’t depressed or unhappy, but you just seemed to lose your motivation although you weren’t particularly upset by that feeling? † (Duncan, 1987, p. 116). Duncan argued that Halikas et al. ’s study, in particular, was a failure because it failed to offer a comparison between users and non-users. Therefore, Duncan used the same questionnaire and applied it to a series of high-achieving subjects to determine the frequency of amotivational syndrome within a larger population of both users and non-users.Duncan selected two hundred thirty-eight athletic students (some former Olympians) from a European university. All subjects were required to speak English and came from various parts of the world. He began by requesting all subjects to fill out a questionnaire regarding past marijuana consumption. The subjects were subsequently divided i nto three groups: 1) those who had never used marijuana, 2) those who used marijuana daily for a thirty day period in their life and, 3) those who used marijuana but could not fill the requirements for group 2 (Duncan, 1987, p. 17). The results of this initial questionnaire indicated that 47. 7% had never used marijuana, 23. 8% were occasional/experimental users and 24. 1% had been daily users. These three groups also responded to the questionnaire borrowed from Halikas et al. It was determined that there was no significant variation in the frequency of amotivational syndrome among marijuana users (Duncan, 1987, p. 117). These results only serve to debunk the initial findings of Halikas et al. and other psychologists who had followed similar methods of analysis.Indeed, Duncan made this explicit in the conclusion of his report. It is clear from Duncan’s work that a new methodology is required to determine whether amotivational syndrome is more prevalent among marijuana users. The limitations of this research are therefore quite clear. Future studies will require both long and short-term analysis of both users and non-users. Also, a controlled definition of motivation will be required to determine what a lack thereof implies. To make improvements one would therefore need to have access, as Duncan had, to a large body of subjects. It would then e necessary to track these subjects, both users and non-users alike, over a sustained period of time to determine whether or not the likelihood of amotivational syndrome is more common among users or non-users, if there is in fact a difference at all. Duncan ultimately argued that he was still prepared â€Å"†¦to relegate the antimotivational syndrome to the growing scrap heap of discarded marijuana myths† (Duncan, 1987, p. 118). In 2002, Cherek et al. conducted a much more dynamic study of amotivational syndrome, following a number of the suggestions offered years earlier by Duncan.They offered a vague definition of amotivational syndrome as a â€Å"set of characteristics† including â€Å"general apathy†¦loss of productivity†¦lethargy (and) depression† among others (Cherek, Lane and Dougherty, 2002, p. 26). Despite these agreed upon attributes of amotivational syndrome, Cherek et al. also found it difficult to pinpoint the amotivational â€Å"phenomenon†. They recalled some of the studies referred to by Duncan that found a positive correlation between marijuana usage and amotivational syndrome.By recognizing that amotivational syndrome occurred among users and non-users alike, the researchers concluded that amotivational syndrome was ultimately a question of frequency. Cherek et al. also sought to arrive at a conclusive definition of motivation, both theoretically and methodologically. To cross this hurdle, Cherek et al. opted to follow a behavioral approach in conjunction with a progressive ratio schedule (PR) and a fixed-time schedule (FT). In this way, they could â€Å"†¦define and measure motivation by measuring changes in PR responding across changes in reinforcer magnitude† (Cherek et al. , 2002, p. 27).Monetary reward would be used as an operational reinforcement and data would be based on subject response rates. The first experiment involved five males who were occasional marijuana users. It was used to confirm the initial â€Å"proposed operational definition of motivational behavior† which meant that there was a direct ratio between the response time and the motivation (Cherek et al. , 2002, pp. 27-28). The results proved that their initial suppositions were correct and that the changes in response rate and ratios were â€Å"consistent with the operational method† established from the outset of the experiment (Cherek et al. 2002, p. 30). The following two experiments used a different subject base but retained the same reinforcer values. The researchers controlled the THC supply, dividing it i nto three strains of potency. They argued that a decrease in PR response following â€Å"acute marijuana administration† while the keeping the reinforcer at a constant level would indicate decreased levels of motivation (Cherek et al. , 2002, p. 30). The results of Experiment 2 Phase 1 indicated that acute marijuana consumption did alter behavior. However, the results were not dose dependent.Experiment 2 Phase 2 showed that the â€Å"marijuana-induced decreases in responding can be overcome by increasing the reinforcer† (Cherek et. al, 2002, p. 35). This meant that although it was clear that there were overt behavioral differences between marijuana induced subjects and the placebo subjects, these differences could be overcome by offering a motivational stimulus. The researchers concluded that acute marijuana users do exhibit some forms of amotivational behavior. This behavior could be usurped if there was an increase in the reinforcement.They pointed out that other stu dies had achieved results that disconfirmed this conclusion. However, those studies did not offer â€Å"the availability of at least one alternative response† for the subjects. [1] Cherek et al. suggested that one could â€Å"construe† their study as an indication that marijuana does induce amotivational behavior. Still, this is not entirely conclusive because the study solely examined the effects of short-term acute marijuana use. Most of the controversy surrounding marijuana use generally questions whether long-term use, rather than short-term use, effects amotivational behavior. 2] The fact that only short-term marijuana use was studied here is its greatest limitation. It was also limited because of the small number of subjects and the environment in which they were tested (a small room). These articles are particularly interesting for me because I am an occasional marijuana user and have always been concerned about how I will be affected in the long-term. I tend to agree with various elements from both studies. I am convinced, like Duncan that many myths concerning marijuana consumption have circulated for political reasons rather than because of empirical data.I also believe that amotivational syndrome is common among both users and non-users alike. Whether or not users are more disposed to this phenomenon is still up for debate. Cherek et al. ’s study was also intriguing because it demonstrated that amotivational syndrome (whether induced by marijuana or not) could be overcome by increasing the reinforcement. This makes a lot of sense in my world-view, as quite often the individuals I have known will become motivated only if they believe they will reap reasonable rewards. If the rewards are not worth the effort, â€Å"amotivational syndrome† may set it.These studies have demonstrated that there is still much more research to be conducted on the effects of marijuana consumption both in the short- term and the long-term. It appe ars as if there is more speculation regarding marijuana than there is empirical evidence. The topic of amotivational syndrome is particularly troublesome because of the tricky nature of defining motivation. This problem is compounded when conducting a controlled study because there is very little motivation, nor may it be possible, for the participants to behave in a controlled environment as they would in the real world.References Cherek, Don R. , Lane, Scott D. and Dougherty, Donald M (2002). Possible Antimotivational Effects Following Marijuana Smoking Under Laboratory Conditions. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10(1), 26-38. Duncan, David F. (1987). Lifetime Prevalence of â€Å"Antimotivational Syndrome† Among Users and Non-Users of Hashish. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 1(2), 114-119. ———————– [1] Cherek et al. , 35. [2] Cherek et al. , 36.

The Fall of Rome essays

The Fall of Rome essays The fall of the Roman Republic and eventually the fall of the Western Roman empire are both very important events in our worlds history. There were many different events and problems that contributed to the fall of Rome. Economic depression, high taxes, and barbarian domination are all possible causes of the fall of the empire (Smith 201). These problems, along with civil wars, slowly destroyed the Roman Empire. From 264 B.C. to 146 B.C. there were a series of fights between Rome and Carthage known as the Punic Wars. Three different Punic Wars were fought during this time and they caused some major problems for Rome. Farmland was destroyed and farmers had no choice but to move to the cities to find work. The main problem with this was that most jobs were taken by slave labor, so farmers could not find work. Suitable living quarters The first Punic War was for control of Sicily. It lasted from 264 B.C. to 241 B.C. Rome was victorious in this war (World 144). The second Punic War was instigated in 218 B.C. by Hannibal, a Carthaginian general who wanted to avenge Carthages previous loss. Scipio, a Roman general, devised a plan to defeat Hannibal. Scipio attacked Carthage, Hannibals native home. This lured Hannibal back for a final battle in this war. Hannibal was defeated in 202 B.C. at a town called Zuma. Winning this war was a victory for Romes army, but a defeat for small farmers (Roman). This was the most destructive war of the three Punic Wars. This was the time when the most farmland was destroyed. The third Punic War lasted from 149 B.C. to 146 B.C. There was not really any actual fighting during this war. Instead, Rome sought revenge for the damage Carthage had previously caused to Rome. In 146 B.C., Rome burned Carthage and sold its citizens into slavery. Carthage then became the new province of Africa (World 145). Another problem that...

Teaching methodology Essays

Teaching methodology Essays Teaching methodology Essay Teaching methodology Essay In analyzing second language teaching methodology, there are three important underlying interrelated terms that must be considered: approach, design, and technique. Long Richards (1987, p.146) mention in their article on the subject that Anthony (1963) originally made the distinction and clarified language-teaching methodology into these three central terms. Long Richards (1987, p.146) also point out that Anthonys (1963) distinction has been since tailored and therefore methodology is generally referred to by speaking of approach, design, and procedure. These three terms will be defined and then used to describe and critically analyze two popular second language-teaching methods: The Natural Approach and Community Language Learning. Approach:  A SLT methods approach in language teaching is based both on theory of language and theory of language learning. Teachers of second languages all naturally or academically attain or accept some theory of how learners learn language and how language is constructed in terms of the various components that comprise it (affixes, words, conjuncts, verbs, sentences, etc, etc.). A methods approach is therefore the basis on what the teacher believes are the means by which learners acquire language and, subsequently, how they go about teaching the L2 in the classroom via their chosen materials and teaching techniques. In further discussing approach and theory of language, it will be helpful to mention three prominent theories relating to second language teaching methodology which have bearing on approach, design, and procedure: the structural view, the functional view, and the interactional view. In a more concerted sense with respect to design, for example, these theories will have varying effects on the roles of the teachers and students within the classroom. The structural view sees language as a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning. (Long Richards, 1987, p.147). Teachers employing this theory in their teaching method, for example, will likely focus their syllabus design and choice of materials on the structural elements of language such as grammar and its functions.  The functional view sees language as a vehicle for the expression of meaning. (Long Richards, 1987, p.147). Teachers employing this view in their teaching method will likely focus their syllabus design and choice of materials less on language form and more on performing language actions from a semantic, rather than grammatical, point of view. The interactional view sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. (Long Richards, 1987, p.147). Teachers employing this view in their teaching method, for example, may focus their syllabus design and choice of materials less on grammatical structure or functionality and more on the discovery of language content through interpersonal communication. (Some examples of common approaches had been provided in Appendix A) Design concerns the instructional materials and the corresponding activities teachers utilize in the classroom. In designing a curriculum or syllabus for SL courses, there are two factors that teachers consider: what to talk about (subject matter) and how to talk about it (linguistic matter) (Long Richards, 1987: p.148).  According to Long Richards (1987: p.148), there are four conditions in terms of design: The content of instruction (i.e. syllabus), learner roles in the system, teacher roles in the system, and instructional material types and functions. Richards Rodgers (1986) further add to these considerations: (These conditions will be discussed and used later to analyze the two methods in question). Design is the level of method analysis in which we consider: (a) the objectives; (b) the syllabus; (c) learning tasks and teaching activities (d) learner roles; (e) teacher roles; and (f) the role of instructional materials. (Richards Rodgers, 1986: p.24)  Procedure comprises the classroom practices which are consequences of particular approaches and designs. (Long, M. Richards, J., 1987, p. 146). In other words, the technical or procedural constituent (how the teacher goes about teaching) in SLT methodology is directly related and affected by a methods approach and course design. Depending on how the teacher views SLA and, for example, what materials he or she chooses for course work, a SL teachers classroom procedures will vary considerably. Other factors such as class length, environment, or class size will have relevance on the techniques or procedures used by teachers as well. A teacher employing the Grammar Translation Approach, for example, may design his or her curriculum around slightly difficult texts and little else. The teachers techniques may therefore include presenting the language content in the form of unrelated sentences that the students would then translate into the L1. The teachers instruction of the grammatical points would most likely be in the L1 and other language variables, such as listening comprehension or pronunciation, would have little importance in the drills conducted in class. Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation. (Mora, J.K., 1999) Contrarily, those employing the Direct Approach would most likely use no L1 in the classroom and would not include the translation of grammar. The teaching procedure for classroom exercises and drills would most likely be the elicitation of a story or dialogue from the student through student directed questions followed by a series of teacher questions (for example yes/no, or, or 5W questions) to be answered in the L2 by the students. Teachers may reverse this role and consequently have the students ask the questions to each other or to the teacher. Grammar is therefore not presented textually and is taught inductively through the controlled use of the L2 based on target language or topics contained within the classroom materials.  The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is no translation. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught inductivelyrules are generalized from the practice and experience with the target language. (Mora, J.K., 1999) With these definitions and examples in mind, we can now utilize them in describing and analyzing two prominent methods of second language teaching: The Natural Approach and Community Language Learning (CLL).  METHOD DESCRIPTION AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS #1:  THE NATURAL APPROACH  The Natural Approach (Terrell, 1977; 1982) is the term coined for the approach proposed by Tracy Terrell (1977) based on his methodological deductions in teaching Spanish to second language learners in California. In order to situate a theoretical foundation for his proposed approach to second language teaching, Terrell collaborated with Stephen Krashen, an applied linguist at the University of California (Richards Rodgers, 1986: 178), whose naturalistic theories on second language acquisition (Language Acquisition Theory: Krashen, 1981; 1982) have had significant influence on applied linguistics in recent years. Terrell and Krashens basis for their collaborated Natural Approach (the NA) (Krashen Terrell, 1983) shares common convention with the Natural Method (Saveur, L. 1826-1907) and the Direct Method. However, as the foundations of these methods are commonly based on the natural components of first language acquisition, the basis of the Natural Approach (Krashen Terrell, 1983) stems from Krashen Terrells naturalistic views on second language acquisition.  In the Natural Approach there is emphasis on exposure, or input, rather than practice; optimizing emotional preparedness for learning; a prolonged period of attention to what the language learners hear before they try to produce language; and a willingness to use written and other materials as a source of comprehensible input. (Richards Rodgers, 1986: p.178)

Analyze Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Analyze - Essay Example It worth noting, that the film explores the theme of sexual relationships in the context of exploitations, despite such relationships having moments of happiness (Alaa 70). The film presents a scandalous and shocking homosexual relationship between Le Caire’s editor, Hatim, and Abduh, who is a Nubian officer married (Hamed Film). Hatim is depicted as having an affluent background. Hatim’s father was an intellectual and rich Egyptian, while his mother was a French national. It is noted that Hatim was introduced into homosexuality at a tender age of nine by their family’s Nubian servant. The film also indicates that Hatim made the first move to seduce Abduh. Hatim later fondled and offered money to Abduh to keep the relationship despite Abduh’s displeasure with the relationship as he tries to end it. Abduh’s reasons for attempting to end the relationship are the religious guilt (Alaa 70). The film indicates that Hatim sexually enslaved Abduh. Hatim offered monetary rewards to Abduh and employment promises to enable him support his family. The film further indicated the tragic end of the homosexual relationship between Hatim and Abduh, when Abduh killed Hatim in rage over the guilty-conscious feeling he had after the death of his son, whom he believed was because of God’s anger over their homosexual relationship (Hamed Film). The film depicts how the Egyptian parliament seeked to ban the Yacoubian Building terming it as possessing obscene scenes â€Å"..that needed to be deleted† (Kate 110). This indicates that there were certain ills in the Egyptian society that were kept away from the public by the government. The film also explores the sexual relationship between Hagg Azzam and Souad Gaber. A Sheikh also depicts this relationship as a rather exploitative one as the Hagg Azzam, an old man, decides to marry an attractive young woman Gaber after an approval. The exploitative nature of this relationship depicts the selfish nature of Azzam (Alaa

FASB Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

FASB - Essay Example regulatory authorities and financial advisers, media have indirect interest in the information, although they also are potential users of the specific financial information. Hence, the difference in identifying the potential users of financial information would relate to the users’ interests in the business. Those users, who are involved in day to day running of the business, along with the future planning and prospects of the enterprise will be potential users of such information, having direct interest in the firm, while indirect interest holders would be those groups who do not intend to derive any direct benefits from the company, like trade unions, financial analysts, among others. Those investors and users of potential information, who have direct interests in the affairs of the company, are interested in knowing its cash flow situation, as they need to know about the generation of cash flows, its timing and amount. This is due to the fact that the business enterprise is seen by such potential users as the source of cash generation, which could result in dividend and interest payments, loan repayments, appreciated stock prices and upward revision in the wages of company workers. The investors in a particular business expect handsome returns. Therefore, they are interested in knowing the company’s financial information. For managers and directors, the information regarding cash flow generation would lead them to a better understanding of their contribution towards the same. While financial reporting has two aspects, internal and external, FASB statement has identified the internal group of potential users, who are interested in such information. As management has been identified as playing a major role in the use of financial information by external and internal users, it is responsible for passing the information to external agencies for their particular use. In addition, management is directly interested in the information about liabilities, assets